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Phonology
Vowels
| closure | central | back | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| unrounded | rounded | unrounded | rounded | |
| unrounded | ʏ ⟨u⟩ | ɨ ⟨i⟩ | ||
| rounded | o ⟨o⟩ | |||
| open | ɑ ⟨a⟩ | |||
Vowels may be elongated
/∅/ ⟨e⟩
Consonants
| Placement →
↓ Manner |
Coronal | Palatal | Dorsal | Laryngeal | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | n | ||||
| Plosive | t / d | q | ʔ ⟨'⟩ | ||
| Sibilant affricate | t͡ʃ ⟨ts⟩ / d͡ʒ ⟨dz⟩ | ||||
| Sibilant fricative | ʃ ⟨s⟩ / ʒ ⟨z⟩ | ||||
| Non-sibilant fricative | θ ⟨th⟩ / ð ⟨dh⟩ | ç ⟨c⟩ / ʝ ⟨y⟩ | x ⟨k⟩ / ɣ ⟨g⟩ | ħ ⟨qh⟩ / h | |
| Trill | r̥ ⟨tr⟩ / r | ʀ̥ ⟨trr⟩ / ʀ ⟨rr⟩ | |||
| Lateral affricate | syllabic | t͡ɬ̩͡l ⟨tcll⟩ / d͡ɮ̩͡l ⟨dyll⟩ | |||
| asyllabic | t͡ɬ ⟨tcl⟩ / d͡ɮ ⟨dyl⟩ | ||||
| Lateral fricative | syllabic | ɬ̩͡l ⟨cll⟩ / ɮ̩͡l ⟨yll⟩ | |||
| asyllabic | ɬ ⟨cl⟩ / ɮ ⟨yl⟩ | ||||
| Lateral Approximant | l | ||||
Phonotactics
Forms
Consonants are notated as c₁, c₂, etc., while vowels are v₁, v₂, etc.. Examples are based on root n_s_q_, painting (in the gnomic sense), in 1SG.AGT.ACT pattern
- c₁v₁c₂v₂c₃v₃ - dane 'ukadho nasaqa - I paint
- c₁v₁c₂c₂v₂c₃v₃ - dane 'ukadho nassaqa - I need to paint
- c₁v₁c₁v₁c₂v₂c₃v₃ - dane 'ukadho nanasaqa - I want to paint
- dac₁v₁c₂v₂lec₃v₃ - dane 'ukadho danasaleqa - I demand to paint, I implore to paint
- 'v₁c₁ec₂v₂c₃v₃ - dane 'ukadho 'anesaqa - I would paint, I might paint
- c₁v₁c₂ec₃v₂rv₃ - dane 'ukadho naseqara - I paint (augmentative)
- c₁v₁nev₂c₂v₃c₃ - dane 'ukadho nanasaq - I paint (diminutive)
- c₁v₁c₃v₂c₂v₃ - dane 'ukado naqasa - I love to paint
Patterns
Verbs
| Active voice | Passive voice | Causative voice | Reciprocal/Reflexive | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Agent | Patient | Agent | Patient | Agent | Patient | |||
| 1 | SG | _a_a_a | _a_ii_a | _u_a_a | _u_ii_a | _o_a_a | _o_ii_a | _i_u_a |
| DUAL | _a_a_i | _a_ii_i | _u_a_i | _u_ii_i | _o_a_i | _o_ii_i | _i_u_i | |
| PAU | _a_a_an | _a_ii_an | _u_a_an | _u_ii_an | _o_a_an | _o_ii_an | _i_u_an | |
| PL | _a_a_os | _a_ii_os | _u_a_os | _u_ii_os | _o_a_os | _o_ii_os | _i_u_os | |
| 2 | SG | _ale_a_a | _ale_ii_a | _ule_a_a | _u_ii_a | _oo_a_a | _oo_ii_a | _ile_u_a |
| DUAL | _ale_a_i | _ale_ii_i | _ule_a_i | _ule_ii_i | _ole_a_i | _ole_ii_i | _ile_u_i | |
| PAU | _ale_a_an | _ale_ii_an | _ule_a_an | _ule_ii_an | _ole_a_an | _ole_ii_an | _ile_u_an | |
| PL | _ale_a_os | _ale_ii_os | _ule_a_os | _ule_ii_os | _ole_a_os | _ole_ii_os | _ile_u_os | |
| 3 | SG | _aa_a_a | _aa_ii_a | _uu_a_a | _uu_ii_a | _oo_a_a | _oo_ii_a | _ii_u_a |
| DUAL | _aa_a_i | _aa_ii_i | _uu_a_i | _uu_ii_i | _oo_a_i | _oo_ii_i | _ii_u_i | |
| PAU | _aa_a_an | _aa_ii_an | _uu_a_an | _uu_ii_an | _oo_a_an | _oo_ii_an | _ii_u_an | |
| PL | _aa_a_os | _aa_ii_os | _uu_a_os | _uu_ii_os | _oo_a_os | _oo_ii_os | _ii_u_os | |
Nouns
| Animate | Inanimate | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Rational | Irrational | ||
| Powerful-Fragile | _i_i_ate | _o_a_e | _o_o_ate |
| Powerful-Graceful | _u_a_a | _o_i_a | _a_a_a |
| Graceful-Fragile | _u_u_ane | _o_o_o | _a_a_ane |
Pronouns
| Presentation → | Powerful-Fragile | Powerful-Graceful | Graceful-Fragile |
|---|---|---|---|
| Performance ↓ | |||
| Powerful-fragile | 'ukadho | dulatto | su'ano |
| Powerful-Graceful | 'ikodha | dilotta | si'ona |
| Graceful-Fragile | 'akadhe | dalatte | sa'ane |
Affixation is used to derive the stative, agent, and patient nominalizations of a verb (to fly becomes flight, that which flies, and that which is flown), as well as the past and present participle adjectivizations of a verb (to fly becomes flown and flying)
When an illegal consonant cluster appears, it is broken up by schwa, still written as ⟨e⟩
Tense goes on the outside as a circumfix, while aspect is a postposition
The conceptual nominalizer is marked with the 'i⟩⟨nile circumfix
alienable possession and inalienable possession are marked separately (e.g. 'my brother' and 'my ball' use a different interfix)
Roots
Sentences begin with the nominative word. A particle ('abun) is used to mark topic.