'Arborese

'Arborese
Language family	Unknown
Era	today
Writing system	None (Latin)
Official status
Spoken in	'Arbor 'Iland
Speaker
Demonym	'Arborese
Number of speakers	only a couple dozen; critically endangered
Technical information
Usage	rare; in private, chiefly among elders
Language code	arb

'Arborese (sometimes spelled Arborese; no endonym documented) is a critically endangered language seldom spoken in the volcanic island territory of 'Arbor 'Iland. It is believed to be weakly agglutinative, although not much is known about its grammar at this time.

Phonetics

Arborese features a fairly minimalist phonemic inventory, with only three vowels and 11 consonants, though there is a degree of free variation and allophony depending on where a sound appears in a word, syllable or utterance, as well as 12 "combined vowels" that appear as diphthongs or long monophthongs.

Phonotactics

The syllable structure is (C)V(V)(C). Any consonant phoneme may start a syllable, but only /n/, /g/, /ʒ/, /d~ʔ/, /f/ and /z/ can appear in coda.

There are estimated to be 252 total possible syllables; properly including long monophthongs and diphthongs, up to 1,008. (Although there may be nearly twice as many including stress and position of the syllable within a word.)

Consonants

	Bilabial	Alveolar	Postalveolar	Velar	Glottal
Nasal / Click	/m/ Mm	/n/ Nn	/ǀ/ [ᶢʇ~ᵏǂ] Tt		∅ ∅/-
Stop	/b/ [β̞] Bb	/d/ [t̺~l~ɾ] Dd	/ʒ/ [d͡ʒ] Cc	/g/ [ɣ~ç~j~ʀ] Gg	/ʔ/ '
Fricative	/f/ Ff	/z/ [z̪] Zz			/h/ [ɦ] Hh

- /d/ is usually [ɾ] or sometimes [d̺], but is [l~ɾ] (Ll not [ǀ]) invervocally and word-initially, making "adua" and "a lua" usually phonetically distinct, although speakers sometimes pronounce them interchangeably.

- Similarly, /b/ is [ɓ~p] word-initially, [β̞] word-medially, [b̚] in word-medial codas, [b] word-finally, and [(b̚)m̩] utterance-finally.

- /g/ appears as [g] word-initially, [j] in word-medial onsets in clusters, [g~ç] in word-medial codas in clusters, [ɣ~ç] in intervocal word-medial codas, and [ʁ~ʀ] in intervocal word-medial onsets, and [

- /ʒ/ is really [d͡ʒ] in most environments, only surfacing as [ʒ] wordmedially in some clusters and intervocally. /ʒ/ was chosen because it's simpler to write and sometimes more accurate than /d͡ʒ/.

- /f/ becomes [ɸ] before /ɔ/, including diphthongs, as well as utterance-finally, where it may be considered somewhat syllabic in nature, as with /z/ and /ʒ/.

- [ʔ] is frequently lowered to a creaky stop or coloring of a lengthened vowel or liquid [ ̰ ]/[ʔ̆] as a word-medial onset and utterance-finally.

- Coda /d~ʔ/ is hard to describe, since it's usually [ʔ] word-medially, but is believed to have come from /d/, for which [d] still exists in some environments, predominantly word-finally. Most linguists tend to use both phonemes depending on the context, though some use an archiphonemic /D/. Others still propose using /t/, in part because of utterance-final [|ˀ]. It is always represented with <d> in romanization.

- Conversely, coda [n] is widely analyzed as simply /n/, even thought allophonically it can appear as [m].

- /ǀ/ is a general click and while usually dental may appear as a palatal or alveolar click. It is tenuis, with a velar release, by default, but can become glottalized (or implosive) or nasalized in several environments.

- - It is generally a relatively weak click, with the velar component in tenuis clicks sometimes being just as audible as the click itself.

- - Many prefer to use [ʇ] for /ǀ/ in phonetic descriptions to avoid confusion with word-initial /d/ [l].

- /o/ frequently is voiceless or disappears between /z/ and before /z/ /ʒ/ and /g/, most often being realized as something akin to [s͡s͜ʷs] [ʃ͡ʃ͜ʷʃ] and x͡xʷ͜x respectively. Double consonants also become this word-medially.

- - A similar process happens between two /f/s, although in this case the realization is more likely [fɵ̥f].

- Voicing is non-contrastive, although /m/, /n/, and word-medial intervocalic /b/ and /d/ tend to be voiced, while other phonemes are most likely slack voice, sometimes pronounced voiced or voiceless in free variation, with utterance-final sounds generally being fully voiceless (and glottal stops being their own thing). A more narrow transcription of these sounds would be /b̥ d̥ v̥ z̥ ʒ̊ g̊ ɦ̥ ᶢ̥ǀ/.

Below is a table of some of the more common realizations of morphological syllable clusters, although some sounds and especially voicing are fairly loose. Sounds separated by ~ indicate common free variation, while sounds after a comma indicate interactions across word boundaries. (~, indicates it's more common in the latter environment but there's some free variation.)

Coda + Onset	C + /m/	C + /n/	C + /ǀ/	C + /b/	C + /d/	C + /ʒ/	C + /g/	C + /f/	C + /z/	C + /h/	C + /ʔ/	(C +) Vowel	Word-Final C	Utterance-Final C
Utterance-initial O	m	n	ᵏǀ~ᵑǀ	p~ɓ	l~t	t͡ʃ~d͡ʒ	g~k	f~ɸ	z~s	h:~ɦ	ʔ	∅ (j/w/ʕ̞)	N/A	N/A
Word-Initial O	m	n	ᶢǀ~ᵏǀ	b	l	d͡ʒ	g~k	f~ɸ	z~s	h~ɦ	ʔ	∅	N/A	N/A
Vowel (+ O)	m	n	ᶢǀ~ᵏǀ	β̞	l~ɾ~d	ʒ	ʁ~ʀ	f~ɸ	z~s	ɦ	̰ ~ʔ̆	see: vowels	∅	∅~h~ʔ
n + O	nm~m:	n~n:	ᵑǀ~,nᶢǀ	nβ̞ ~, nb~mb	nd, nɺ	nd͡ʒ	nj~nç, ng	mv~nf	nz~nd͡z	nɦ	nʔ̆, nʔ	n	n	n
f + O	fm	fn	fᵑǀ~,fᶢǀ	fβ̞ ~, fp~ɓ	fd~ft, fɺ	fd͡ʒ	fj, fg~fk	fʷf~f:	fs~fz	fɦ~vh	fʔ̆, fʔ	f~ɸ	f	ɸ~ů
z + O	zm	zn	zᵑǀ~,zᶢǀ	zβ̞ , zb	zd, zɺ	zd͡ʒ	zj, zg~sk	zf~sf	zʷz~sʷs, s:	zh~sɦ	zʔ̆, zʔ~sʔ	z~s	z~s	s
c + O	ʒm, d͡ʒm	ʒn, d͡ʒn	ʒᵑǀ~,d͡ʒᶢǀ	ʒβ̞ , d͡ʒb	(d͡)ʒd, ʃɺ	d͡ʒd͡ʒ~ʃt͡ʃ~ʒʷʒ	ʒj, d͡ʒ~t͡ʃk	ʒf~,t͡ʃf	ʒʷʒ~ʃʷʃ, d͡ʒs	ʒh, d͡ʒɦ	ʒʔ̆~d͡ʒʔ̆, t͡ʃʔ	t͡ʃ~d͡ʒ	d͡ʒ	t͡ʃ~ʃ
g + O	gm~ʁm, ɣm	gn~ʁn, ɣn	ᵏǀˀ~,ǀ͡ɠ	gβ̞~ʁw ~, ɣb	gd~ʁd, ɣɺ	gʒ~ɣd͡ʒ~,ɣd͡ʒ~ʃt͡ʃ	ʔj~ʔɣ~ɠ, çk	gf~ʁf, ɣf	d͡z, ɣz~ʁz	kh~ʁh, ç	gʔ~ʁʔ, ɣʔ	ɣ~ç	ɣ~ç	ɣ~ç
d/' + O	ʔm, dm	ʔn, dn	ᵏǀˀ~,ǀ͡ɠ	ʔβ̞~ɓ, db	ʔd~ɗ, dɺ	ʔʒ~ʔt͡ʃ, ɾ.d͡ʒ	ɣ͡ɣ͜ʷɣ~x͡xʷ͜x, dg	ʔf, df	ʔz~t͡s~,d.z	dh~ʔh	dʔ~ɾʔ	ʔd~ɗ	ɾ	|ˀ

This phonetically creates a somewhat distinct [ᵑǀ], [ǀˀ], [sʷs], [ʃʷʃ], [xʷx], [fʷf~fɵ̥f~f:], [β̞], [d͡ʒ], [ɣ], [j], [ʁ], and [ʔ̆], and non- or semi-distinct [n:] [m:] [s:] [ɓ], [ɗ], [ʔʲ~ɠ], [ǀ͡ɠ], [ɸ], [t͡s], [w] and [ʕ̞]. None of these are considered phonemic.

List of plausible consonant phones:

Phones		Labial	Alveolar	Postalveolar	Velar~Uvular	Co-Velar	Laryngeal
Stop	Plosive/Aff	b̥	d̥, d̥͡z	d̥͡ʒ	g̊	ᶢ̥ǀ	ʔ
	Glottal	ɓ	ɗ	ʔʲ~ɠ		ᵏǀˀ, ǀ͡ɠ*	̰ ~ʔ̆
	Nasal	m, m:*	n, n:*			ᵑǀ
Continuant	Fricative	v̥, v̥:~ fɵ̥f*,	z̥, z̥:*	ʒ̊	ɣ̟̊	β̥~ů	ɦ̥
	swish		z̥͡z̥ʷ͜z̥	ʒ̊͡ʒ̊ʷ͜ʒ̊	ɣ̟̊͡ɣ̟̊͜ʷɣ̟̊
	Liquid	β̞	ɺ (l~ɾ)	j	ʁ~ʀ	w	ʕ̞

Vowels

'Arborese features four vowels: /a/ Aa, /e/ Ee, and /o/ Oo. Each of these may combine into a different diphthong or lengthened monophthongs, as shown in the below table.

	Front	Open	Back
Unstressed Short	/e/ [ɪ~ɨ] e	/a/ [ɐ] a	/o/ [ɔ] o
Stressed Short	[i:] (iə̆~ɨ:) e	[ɜ:] a	[ɔ:~ɒ:] o
V + ɪ	[ɪ:] (e:~i:) ee	[aɛ̆] ae	[ʊɪ̆~ɘɪ̆] oi
V + ɐ	[ɛă] ea	[a:~ɛ:] aa	[ɔa~oɑ̆) oa
V + ɔ	[ɪʊ̆~ɨɔ̆] eo	[aɔ̆] ao	[o:~ʊə̆] oo
Utterance-initially	([j] +) V	([ʕ̞] +) V	([w] +) V

In addition, some argue that these can further combine into triphthongs or glides with lengthened monophthongs, although most agree they are realizations of vowel or diphthong hiatus. Additionally, two monophthongs across word boundaries are believed to have a true vowel hiatus and not become a diphthong.

Stress

The first syllable of a polysyllabic words is generally stressed, unless the second syllable is heavier. (C)V is lighter than CVV / CVC, which are both lighter than CVVC; i.e. eno, eenon, and faongaed would be stress-initial, but anoa, zomed, gaomead, and hazfeen would be second-syllable stress. For words that are three syllables or longer, the third syllable may be stressed if it is heavier than both of the prior two syllables.

Words that are four or five syllables long have secondary stress on the penultimate syllable, and have stressed syllables every even number of syllables beforehand up until (and including) the second syllable after the initial stressed syllable: i.e. Mafoanaazameegananoen would be [ma'foa.na:.zɐˌme:gɐˌnɐ:.nɔɪn]. Note that two stressed syllables cannot appear next to one another within the same word.

For single-syllable words, CV and CVC words are generally unstressed, while CVV and CVVC words are generally stressed. Mae gae zau ne bo fe meneo would be ['mae.'gae.'zau.ne.bo.fe.me.'nɪʊ̆]

Short monophthongs (/e/ /a/ /o/) that are stressed become long vowels. These are different from both double vowels (/ee/ /aa/ /oo/), which are long and have a different vowel quality, and two vowels across word boundaries (/e e/ /a a/ /o o/), which are technically two short vowels which can both be independently stressed or unstressed. Long vowels and diphthongs retain the same length, but are pronounced with an "unstressed" pitch.

Aside from lengthening short vowels in open syllables, stressed syllables can also see a change in pitch relative to unstressed syllables, depending on intonation.

Intonation

Across a whole sentence, if the general tone is flat, it's probably an indicative. If, however, across a whole sentence, the stressed syllables are (most often) falling tones - starting at a higher pitch and ending on a lower pitch, it can indicates narration, poetry, or answer to an affirmative question. Exaggerated pitch falling across the sentence may indicate a strong affirmation or emotional state. Unless exaggerated, the final stressed syllable is generally a level low tone, and indeed the second-final stressed syllable is also often a level low tone.

Conversely, a raise in pitch across the whole sentence - that is, unstressed syllables are a level high pitch while stressed syllables start lower and rise to the unstressed pitch - may indicate as a polite correction or an answer to a no question, although can otherwise act as a way of highlighting important information or as a form of excitement or anxiety. When exaggerated, it can indicate surprise, a dubitative, disbelief, or persuasion of an outcome that is counterintuitive. When only the final stressed syllable in a clause is rising - and any unstressed vowels afterward are high tone - it indicates a form of incompleteness, and can function as a pause between clauses, while exaggerated can indicate a question. (similar to a comma in French). Unlike with falling tone intonation, every stressed syllable features the rising tone.

Emphasis on an individual pitch can indicate emphasis on a single word, somewhat similar to English, although it's generally only used for surprise or otherwise act to highlight the topic when answering or asking a yes/no interrogative, the latter of which may also end in a high pitch specifically on the final unstressed syllable (or rising if the final syllable is stressed).

Romanization

'Arborese does not feature its own alphabet, and the Latin script has been adopted to cover it, although in day-to-day use things are rarely written down in Arborese and linguists tend to use the IPA.

Letter	Aa	Bb	Cc	Dd	Ee	Ff	Gg	Hh	Mm	Nn	Oo	Tt	Zz	'	-
Ipa	/a/	/b/	/ʒ/	/d/, -/ʔ/*	/e/	/f/	/g/	/h/	/m/	/n/	/o/	/ǀ/	/z/	/ʔ/	Null Onset after Codas

In romanization, , . ? and ! are frequently used, since they also affect intonation. ! is sometimes put before the first word to indicate a negative answer/correction, while italicization may be used for emphasized words.  !? is also fairly commonplace, while ‽ may be used by interrobang purists. (example: !No, he eatn't the bread!?)

Grammar

'Arborese is a fairly analytical, head-initial SVO language with weak agglutination. It has two noun cases, five verb tenses, and a host of auxiliary and compound verbs used to indicate a rich host of additional aspects, moods, and more specific meanings.

Nouns

Nouns in 'Arborese are fairly straightforward, since there is no grammatical gender, and only three noun cases. The two non-disputed cases are the nominative and prepositional.

Nominative nouns are not marked, and are utilized for both the nominative and accusative in a sentence, as the language has a strict SVO word order.

Prepositional nouns are usually created by adding a vowel (usually e) after the final onset, although if this syllable is either a diphthong or is open and would come after a stressed syllable if applied, usually ends in -e after a vowel (replacing diphthongs) and -a after a consonant. (fe -> fee, mofo -> mofeo, mofoo -> mofoe, mendeg -> mendeeg, faaso -> faasoe, moan -> moana). There are some exceptions however (gema -> gemae). Proper nouns simply end in an additional -a, as is the case with some loan words and some other words. The prepositional noun is used in prepositional phrases, and is used for locative, genitive, dative, and instrumental constructions. When present without a preposition, it can be used as a vocative or as a disjunctive used for emphasis.

Another way of creating emphasis is through reduplication of the final onset and its proceeding vowel, which surfaces as a separate word (dagan -> dagan ga). It is also affected by prepositional markers and plural marking (dagean ge, daganon gooan); note that the reduplication is CooVn. This emphatic word can also be used as a reflexive pronoun when it used for a subject and appears after a verb, effectively turning it into a reflexive object marker. (i.e. dagean ge ofab is emphatic while dagean ofab ge is reflexive). Reduplication of the entire first syllable of a plural noun is instead reciprocal in nature, acting as a simple third-person pronoun (i.e. dageanon ofab dag vs. dageanon ofab gooan). The emphatic can also be used to differentiate homophones being used together in a sentence, with emphasis often placed on a more animate one; some linguists argue this could already be analyzed as a form of grammatical gender, as though it is generally not used except when multiple homophones are used in a sentence, it has been documented in regular speech by at least one individual.

Pronouns

Pronouns in 'Arborese are fairly complex, since there is no simple third person definitive pronoun. Instead, pronouns are constructed by taking the first syllable of a word. For example, dagean would be dag. These pronouns act as a simple third-person pronoun as well as a reciprocal pronoun (i.e. an action is performed among other individuals of the same thing), but can be used as a reciprocal pronoun for plurals. There are indeed some instances where these pronouns may be confused with a separate, monosyllabic noun, in which case the emphatic is used for clarification if it is, in fact, a new noun.

Other pronouns include "I/me", "You"(pl), "Us/We", "You"(pl), and a generic "it/they/them" for when a third person pronoun is unknown. There are also prepositional and distinct emphatic constructions for these pronouns.; note that third person pronouns take the root and add -ne or -e to the end of the word.

There are also interrogative pronouns which are also used for relative clauses, including "what (inanimate)", "what/who (animate)", "who", "which/what (adjectival)", "where" - which can combine with prepositions to mean "how / whence", and "why / whither", and "when / how many/much", which is used with prepositions to indicate "how long from now / ago" or "how much more was there / is needed".

Verbs

Verbs come in many varieties of tense, aspect, and mood. The default realis/stative verb may be in a present or past progressive or perfective, as well as a distant past. The past progressive can also be used as an experiential. The present perfective indicates that an action was just completed, or is about to be completed, and may be thought of as a recent-past or near-future. It also can be used as a momentative or instant action.

Verbs may also appear in subordinate mood, which is just a realis mood that appears in subordinate clauses (especially relative clauses), as well as when in auxiliary constructions, and can appear in all tense/aspect distinctions. They also may be irrealis going into independent clauses to indicate a hypothetical, abilitative, desiderative, conditional "then" clause, or in some cases an implied "should", and can also appear in all tenses except for the remote past; on its own it can also be utilized in the non-past as a hortative or imperative. The subjunctive, then, is the subordinate version of the hypothetical mood, being an irrealis verb in dependent clauses and after auxiliary verbs, as well as going into conditional "if" clauses.

There are also a large number of other constructions that further specify moods, aspect, and evidentiality. For example, the word "be" (which is also "have") can be tacked onto the end of a present or past verb to indicate either a jussive, emphatic deductive, or, for progressive verbs, gnomic, while in the far past it implies a super remote, likely untenable past. This is relatively analogous to "must" in English. When irrealis, it implies an obligation that is not being carried out, acting as a sort of simultaneous jussive and dubitative, or as an unfulfilled obligative or optative, thus often being called a "counterfactual", while in the far past it can also imply ancient fables or myths. This often corresponds to "should (but isn't/didn't)" in English.

While both the core verb and the auxiliary are both marked the same for realis vs. irrealis and surbordination, as well as tense, both may be coded for aspect separately. This can drastically change the basic meaning of the verb, and in fact allows for only a small handful of auxiliary verbs to perform numerous functions. Note that auxiliary verbs modifying a verb in the remote past are in either the past perfective or past progressive aspect.

For example, the while the above paragraph provided information on "be" in the progressive, "be" in the perfective means something entirely different, functioning as a valency decreasing operation, much like English, acting as either a passive (I was hit) or an antipassive (I hit [it]), depending on if the subject is nominative or absolutive, being a logical extension that a one-off action was ordained by something else, implying low volition.

Another common auxiliary verb that creates a rich set of aspectual distinctions is "hold", which can, depending on its tense pairings, be used to indicate a habitual (progressive progressive), frequentative (progressive perfective), transitional [inchoative/cessative] (perfective progressive), or iterative (perfective perfective), along with turning a far past into a far past progressive, habitual, or gnomic.

Another common verb is "go", which has further has a lot of nuance. In the progressive, it acts as an conative (with no results) when paired with a past verb, or as a quasi-future with a present verb. It similarly acts as a broader a mindset to try to do something repeatedly or for a long time when paired with a progressive verb - functioning somewhat as an atelic verb (i.e. "search" or "look for" instead of "find"). Meanwhile, in the perfective, it is used as an assumptive, which in the irrealis mood indicates a dubitative. In the distant past, this instead indicates a previously held assumption about a past event.

The last verb that is commonly used as an auxiliary is "wear". In the perfective it indicates know-how, an experiential, or abilitative - specifically abilitative with good skill. This only exists in the realis modality. In the imperfective, it functions more as an evidential marker, indicating that it's quite apparent if not obvious that someone did something. This functions as something of an inferential, and is different from a realis or irrealis stative mood. It should be noted in both of these cases that in the irrealis, they can be used to indicate suspicion and further function as an assumptive based on appearance or actions, rather than truly knowing someone. . Uniquely, the remote past of the deductive/assumptive acts as a habitual marker, similar to has been in English, indicating the verb is and has long been the case; it more indicates that it's quite apparent now based on something that must've been going on for some time. It should be noted that wear can serve similar functions when used as a full verb instead of an auxiliary, indicating something is obvious or someone knows something with great detail, in addition to simply wearing clothes.

Other common auxiliaries include need (irrealis only: perfective indicates absolute necessity, progressive indicates strong desiderative), emotional verbs such as fear (i.e. afraid of an action that hasn't happened yet, or "of Xing"; for actions that have occurred, see coverbs and causals below, or otherwise it'll appear in a subordinate clause. Irrealis only), fall (progressive or perfective act of failing to do something, turning it negative; irrealis indicates probablistic or assumptive failure), start (progressive/perfective inchoative), stop (cessative progressive/perfective with the intention of not returning), lay ([short-term and long-term process] cessative with the intention of returning; no inchoative counterpart), see (learning how to do something), lose (forgetting how to or losing the ability to do something, or ceasing long-term against one's will), obtain/achieve (do well in perfective, trying hard and likely succeeding in progressive; realis with perfective, irrealis with progressive), and a pair of auxiliaries that don't map onto another verb that essentially act as a confirmative or negative (perfective only).

Below is a table of the primary verbal conjugations accompanied by auxiliaries:

Verbs	Aux. Aspect	Realis/Irrealis	Non-Past Progressive	Past Progressive	Non-Past Perfective	Past Perfective	Remote Past
Verb	Independent	Realis (Stative)	present progressive/continuous	past progressive/imperfective	(near-)present perfective	past perfective	remote past simple/perfective
		Irrealis (Hypothetical)	hypothetical, abilitative, weak deontic, desiderative, hortative, conditional, permissive, or (in present) imperative versions of the above
	Dependent	Realis (Subordinate)	Same as above but for dependent clauses; conditional "if" clauses
		Irrealis (Subjunctive)
Be/Have + Verb	Progressive	Realis	jussive/deductive NP.PROG; gnomic	Jus/Ded. P.PROG; past gnomic	Jus/Ded NP.PFV	Jus/Ded P.PFV	distant past jussive / deductive
		Irrealis	optative imperfective	unfulfilled progressive	optative perffective	unfulfilled PFV	ancient fable or legend
	Perfective	Realis	Low-Volitition Detransitiviser (Passive / Antipassive) of normal verbs
		Irrealis
Hold + Verb	Progressive	Realis	present habitual	past habitual	present frequentative	past frequentative	remote past continuous/habitual
		Irrealis	irrealis versions of above
	Perfective	Realis	present durative (long continuous)	past durative	(near-)present iterative	past iterative	remote past transitional
		Irrealis*	irrealis versions of above, although never really used
Go + Verb	Progressive	Realis	present atelic / prog. conative/future	past atelic / cont. conative	present perf.con/fut.	past perf.conative	remote past conative
		Irrealis (uncommon)	dubitative versions of the above; uncommon				ancient hypothetical (rare)
	Perfective	Realis	evidential or knowledge-based assumptive versions of the realis stative verbs
		Irrealis	dubitative versions of the realis stative verbs
Wear + Verb	Progressive	Realis	emphatic deductive of the realis stative verbs				EMPH+.DED/INFR NP.HAB
		Irrealis	non-evidential weak assumptive of the realis stative verb				weak assumptive pres. habitual
	Perfective	Realis (exclusive)	emphatic abilitative/experiential of the realis stative verb
Need + Verb	Progressive	Irrealis (exclusive)	necessitative of the realis stative verb
	Perfective		emphatic desiderative of the realis stative verb
Fall + Verb	Progressive	Realis	imperfective failing at doing something
		Irrealis	imperfective probable or assumptive failure at doing something; dubitative with the assumption that an attempt was made
	Perfective	Realis	perfective failure to do something
		Irrealis	perfective probable or assumptive failure at doing something; dubitative with the assumption that an attempt was made
Start + Verb	Progressive	Both	progressive/durational inchoative version realis and irrealis stative verbs; present can indicate a near future
	Perfective	Both	perfective inchoative version realis and irrealis stative verbs
Stop + Verb	Both	Both	cessative versions of the above inchoative with the intention of stopping permanently
Lay + Verb	Both	Both	cessative versions of the above inchoative with the intention of stopping temporarily
See + Verb	Both	Both	progressive or perfective, realis or irrealis, act of learning how to do a verb
Lose + Verb	Both	Both	progressive or perfective, realis or irrealis, act of forgetting how or losing the ability to do a verb, or otherwise stopping long-term against one's will
Obtain/Achieve + Verb	Progressive	Irrealis (exclusive)	likely near-future successful attemptative of the realis stative verbs
	Perfective	Realis (exclusive)	excellent version of the realis stative verbs
Grab + Verb	Progressive	Realis	voluntarily in the process of switching to doing something or becoming apparent that one was responsible for an action
		Irrealis	involuntarily in the process of switching to doing something or becoming apparent that one was responsible for an action
	Perfective	Realis	voluntarily doing or done an action in place of something else
		Irrealis	involuntarily doing or done an action in place of something else
Release + Verb	Both	Both	same as above, but for the process or no longer doing an action
Change + Verb	Progressive	Realis (exclusive)	switching from an old task to a new task
	Perfective		altering how a task is being performed
Is/Didn't + Verb (Origin Unclear)	Perfective (exclusive)	Realis-Affirmative	affirmative positive when put before a verb when answering a question; affirmative negative when before a negative verb
		Irrealis-Negative	anti-affirmative when put before a verb, with the positive or negative of the verb reflecting what actually happened

In addition, the auxiliary be may appear before both wear and hold, although this only acts as a detransitiviser, and agrees with the aspect of the following auxiliary verb. The affirmative/negative auxiliaries may also appear before any other auxiliary verb, including be; this allows affirmatives and negatives that are uncertain or unlikely. Start, Stop, Lay, Take Over, Rest, and Change may also be used before some other auxiliary verbs (including be + another auxiliary) and can appear with independent aspect markers.

Several adverbs may also be used, as well as number to indicate number of times something has been done (in the nominative; the absolutive it implies for the nth time).

Then there are some suffixes that are adverbial in nature but tack onto the verb, including the dependent verb. These can include "surprisingly", "suddenly", "quickly", "slowly", "again" or "re", and "not". The irrealis modifier may also be thought of as a "maybe" or "could" adverb, but given its versatility in modifying moods and aspects, and its ability to be placed on auxiliaries, it is generally considered an inherent verb modality. There also exist coverbial functions, such as "while", "after", and "before", which can be combined with a causative paraphrastic phrase to mean "and", "thus", and "in order to".

It should be noted there are no infinitive or gerundive forms of verbs. Adjectivized verbs need to be placed in relative clauses using relative pronouns, with the nominative or absolutive being used to mark the directionality of a verb. Nominalized verbs do exist, but must be formed paraphrastically, i.e. it must be put into a content clause with a dummy word meaning something along the lines of "action", or otherwise a word corresponding roughly with the verb in question. The same is not true of nouns becoming verbs, which can be done through a simpler morphological process.