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{{Infobox language|name=Arborese|family=Unknown|era=today|scripts=None (Latin)|country=[['Arbor 'Iland]]|number=only a couple dozen; critically endangered|usage=rare; in private, chiefly among elders|lang-code=arb|demonym=Arborese}}
{{Infobox language|name='Arborese|family=Unknown|era=today|scripts=None (Latin)|country=[['Arbor 'Iland]]|number=only a couple dozen; critically endangered|usage=rare; in private, chiefly among elders|lang-code=arb|demonym='Arborese}}


Arborese (sometimes spelled 'Arborese; no endonym documented) is a critically endangered language seldom spoken in the volcanic island territory of [['Arbor 'Iland]]. It is believed to be weakly agglutinative, although not much is known about its grammar at this time.  
'Arborese (sometimes spelled Arborese; no endonym documented) is a critically endangered language seldom spoken in the volcanic island territory of [['Arbor 'Iland]]. It is believed to be weakly agglutinative, although not much is known about its grammar at this time.  


== Phonetics ==
== Phonetics ==
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|/b/ Pb
|/b/ Pb
|/d/ [t̺~l~ɾ] Lld
|/d/ [t̺~l~ɾ] Lld
| rowspan="2" |/ʒ/ [d͡ʒ] Gg
| rowspan="2" |/ʒ/ [d͡ʒ] Cc
| rowspan="2" |/g/ [ɣ] Cc
| rowspan="2" |/g/ [ɣ] Gg
|/ʔ/ '
|/ʔ/ '
|-
|-
Line 41: Line 41:
|}- /d/ is usually [ɾ] or sometimes [d̺], but is [l~ɾ] (Ll not [ǀ]) invervocally and word-initially, making "adua" and "a lua" ''usually'' phonetically distinct, although speakers sometimes pronounce them interchangeably.
|}- /d/ is usually [ɾ] or sometimes [d̺], but is [l~ɾ] (Ll not [ǀ]) invervocally and word-initially, making "adua" and "a lua" ''usually'' phonetically distinct, although speakers sometimes pronounce them interchangeably.


- /f/ becomes [ɸ] before /ɔ/, including diphthongs.
- /f/ becomes [ɸ] before /ɔ/, including diphthongs, as well as utterance-finally, where it may be considered somewhat syllabic in nature, as with /z/ and /ʒ/.


- Coda /ŋ/ /ɣ/ and /d͡ʒ/ are distinct intervocally from onset /n/ (/m/) /g/ and /ʒ/, but are considered the same phoneme as they are phonetically identical or interchangeable in most other environments.
- Coda /ŋ/ /ɣ/ and /d͡ʒ/ are distinct intervocally from onset /n/ (/m/) /g/ and /ʒ/, but are considered the same phoneme as they are phonetically identical or interchangeable in most other environments.
Line 47: Line 47:
- (which itself is really [d͡ʒ] more often than not, but simpler to write).
- (which itself is really [d͡ʒ] more often than not, but simpler to write).


- Coda /d~ʔ/ is hard to describe, since it's usually /ʔ/, but is believed to have come from /d/, which exists in some environments. Linguists tend to use both phonemes depending on the context, as does the romanization, while others use an archiphonemic /D/
- Coda /d~ʔ/ is hard to describe, since it's usually /ʔ/, but is believed to have come from /d/, which exists in some environments. Linguists tend to use both phonemes depending on the context, as does the romanization, while others use an archiphonemic /D/. Others still propose using /t/ given it also becomes a click utterance-finally.


- Similarly, while coda [ŋ] is commonly analyzed as /n/, there's no reason it couldn't be /m/ or even a distinct /ŋ/; some linguists sometimes use both n and m, others use /N/, and others only use /n/ like the romanization.
- Conversely, coda [n] is commonly analyzed as simply /n/, even thought allophonically it can appear as [m].


- /o/ frequently is less voiced or disappears between /z/ and before /z/ or /ʒ/, becoming something similar to [s͡s͜ʷs] and [ʒ͡ʒʷ͜ʒ] respectively. This ''also'' occurs with /z.z/ and /z.ʒ/ clusters.
- /o/ frequently is less voiced or disappears between /z/ and before /z/ or /ʒ/, becoming something similar to [s͡s͜ʷs] and [ʒ͡ʒʷ͜ʒ] respectively.


- - A similar process happens between two /f/s, although in this case the realization is more likely [fɵ̥f].
- - A similar process happens between two /f/s, although in this case the realization is more likely [fɵ̥f].


- Voicing is non-contrastive, although /m/, /n/, /b/ /d/ and intervocal sounds tend to be voiced, while /f/, /ǀ/, and utterance-final sounds (and arguably ʔ) are more often voiceless, with others frequently in between.
- Voicing is non-contrastive, although /m/, /n/, /b/ /d/ and intervocalic sounds tend to be voiced, while other phonemes are most likely slack voice, with utterance-final sounds generally being fully voiceless, being more accurately transcribed as /v̥ z̥ ʒ̊ g̊ ɦ̥ ᶢ̥ǀ/.


Below is a table of some of the more common realizations of morphological syllable clusters, although some sounds and especially voicing are fairly loose.
Below is a table of some of the more common realizations of morphological syllable clusters, although some sounds and especially voicing are fairly loose.
Line 72: Line 72:
!C + /ʔ/
!C + /ʔ/
!(C +) Vowel
!(C +) Vowel
!Final C
!Word-Final C
!Utterance-Final C
|-
|-
!Initial O
!Word-Initial O
|m
|m
|n
|n
Line 87: Line 88:
|ʔ
|ʔ
|∅
|∅
|N/A
|N/A
|N/A
|-
|-
Line 102: Line 104:
|ʔ
|ʔ
|see: vowels
|see: vowels
|∅
|∅~h~ʔ
|∅~h~ʔ
|-
|-
!n + O
!n + O
|ŋm
|nm
|ŋ (ᵑǀ)
|n
|ᵑǀ
|ᵑǀ
|ŋb~mb
|nb~mb
|ŋd~ⁿd, ŋɺ
|nd, nɺ
|ɲd͡ʒ
|nd͡ʒ
|ŋg~ŋx
|ŋg~nç
|mv~ŋf
|mv~ŋf
|nz~nd͡z
|nz~nd͡z
|ŋɦ
|nɦ
|ŋʔ
|nʔ
|ŋ~ɲ
|n
|ŋ~n
|n
|n
|-
|-
!f + O
!f + O
Line 131: Line 135:
|fɦ~vh
|fɦ~vh
|fʔ
|fʔ
|f~ɸ
|f
|f
|f
|ɸ~ů
|-
|-
!z + O
!z + O
Line 148: Line 153:
|z~s
|z~s
|z~s
|z~s
|s
|-
|-
!c + O
!c + O
|d͡ʒm~t͡ʃm
|d͡ʒm~t͡ʃm
|ʒn~d͡ʒ
|ʃn~d͡ʒ
|ʒᶢǀ~ʒᵑǀ
|ʒᶢǀ~ʒᵑǀ
|d͡ʒb
|d͡ʒb~ʒb
|(d͡)ʒd, ʃɺ
|(d͡)ʒd, ʃɺ
|d͡ʒd͡ʒ~ʃt͡ʃ
|ʒd͡ʒ~ʃt͡ʃ
|ʒg~t͡ʃk
|ʒg~t͡ʃk
|ʒf~t͡ʃf
|ʒf~t͡ʃf
|ʒʷʒ~ʃʷʃ
|ʒʷʒ~ʃʷʃ
|t͡ʃh~d͡ʒɦ
|t͡ʃh~d͡ʒɦ
|t͡ʃʔ~d͡ʒʔ
|t͡ʃʔ~ʒʔ
|t͡ʃ~d͡ʒ
|t͡ʃ~d͡ʒ
|d͡ʒ~ʃ
|d͡ʒ
|t͡ʃ~ʃ
|-
|-
!g + O
!g + O
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|kn~ɣn
|kn~ɣn
|ᵏǀˀ~ǀ͡ɠ
|ᵏǀˀ~ǀ͡ɠ
|ɣb~gb
|gb
|<nowiki>kt~gd~ɠ͡|</nowiki>
|<nowiki>kt~gd~ɠ͡|</nowiki>
|gʒ~xʃ~ʃt͡ʃ
|gʒ~ɣʒ
|ʔɣ~kx
|ʔɣ~kx
|gf~xf
|gf~xf
Line 178: Line 185:
|ʁ~ɣ~ç
|ʁ~ɣ~ç
|ɣ~x
|ɣ~x
|x
|-
|-
!d/' + O
!d/' + O
|dm
|ʔm
|ʔn
|ʔn
|ᵏǀˀ~ǀ͡ɠ
|ᵏǀˀ~ǀ͡ɠ
Line 187: Line 195:
|ʔʒ~ʔt͡ʃ
|ʔʒ~ʔt͡ʃ
|ʔg~ɠ
|ʔg~ɠ
|df~tf
|df~ʔf
|ʔz~t͡s
|ʔz~t͡s
|dh
|dh~ʔh
|dʔ
|dʔ
|d~ɾ
|d~ɾ
|ʔh
|ɾ~ʔ
|ǀˀ
|}
|}
This phonetically creates a distinct [ŋ], [ᵑǀ], [ǀˀ], [d͡ʒ], [ɣ], [sʷs], [ʃʷʃ], and [fʷf~fɵ̥f], and non-distinct [ɓ], [ɗ], [ɠ], [ǀ͡ɠ], and [t͡s], although none of these are considered phonemic.
This phonetically creates a distinct [ᵑǀ], [ǀˀ], [d͡ʒ], [ɣ], [sʷs], [ʃʷʃ], and [fʷf~fɵ̥f], and non-distinct [ŋ~ɲ], [ɓ], [ɗ], [ɠ], [ǀ͡ɠ], [ɸ] and [t͡s], although none of these are considered phonemic.


=== Vowels ===
=== Vowels ===
Arborese features four vowels: /a/ Aa, /e/ Ee, /ɨ/ Ii, and /o/ Oo. Each of these may combine into a different diphthong or lengthened monophthongs, as shown in the below table.
Arborese features four vowels: /a/ Aa, /ɛ/ Ee, /ɨ/ Ii, and /ɔ/ Oo. Each of these may combine into a different diphthong or lengthened monophthongs, as shown in the below table.
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!
!
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|/a/
|/a/
|/b/
|/b/
|/ʒ/
|/ɛ/
|/f/
|/g/
|/g/
|/e/
|/ɦ/
|/f/
|/ɨ/
|/ʒ/
|/h/
|/i/
|/d/
|/d/
|/m/
|/m/
|/n/
|/n/
|/o/
|/ɔ/
|/ǀ/
|/ǀ/
|/z/
|/z/

Revision as of 05:24, 23 July 2026

'Arborese
Language familyUnknown
Eratoday
Writing systemNone (Latin)
Official status
Spoken in'Arbor 'Iland
Speaker
Demonym'Arborese
Number of speakersonly a couple dozen; critically endangered
Technical information
Usagerare; in private, chiefly among elders
Language codearb


'Arborese (sometimes spelled Arborese; no endonym documented) is a critically endangered language seldom spoken in the volcanic island territory of 'Arbor 'Iland. It is believed to be weakly agglutinative, although not much is known about its grammar at this time.

Phonetics

Arborese features a fairly minimalist phonemic inventory, with only four vowels and 11 consonants, though there is a degree of free variation and allophony depending on where a sound appears in a word, syllable or utterance.

Phonotactics

The syllable structure is (C)V(V)(C). Any consonant phoneme may start a syllable, but only /n/, /g/, /ʒ/, /d~ʔ/, /f/ and /z/ can appear in coda.

There are estimated to be 308 total possible syllables; properly including long monophthongs and diphthongs, up to 1,232.

Consonants

Bilabial Alveolar Postalveolar Velar Glottal
Nasal / Click /m/ Mm /n/ Nn /ǀ/ [ᶢʇ~ᵏǂ] Tt ∅ ∅/-
Stop /b/ Pb /d/ [t̺~l~ɾ] Lld /ʒ/ [d͡ʒ] Cc /g/ [ɣ] Gg /ʔ/ '
Fricative /f/ Ff /z/ [z̪] Zz /ɦ/ Hh

- /d/ is usually [ɾ] or sometimes [d̺], but is [l~ɾ] (Ll not [ǀ]) invervocally and word-initially, making "adua" and "a lua" usually phonetically distinct, although speakers sometimes pronounce them interchangeably.

- /f/ becomes [ɸ] before /ɔ/, including diphthongs, as well as utterance-finally, where it may be considered somewhat syllabic in nature, as with /z/ and /ʒ/.

- Coda /ŋ/ /ɣ/ and /d͡ʒ/ are distinct intervocally from onset /n/ (/m/) /g/ and /ʒ/, but are considered the same phoneme as they are phonetically identical or interchangeable in most other environments.

- (which itself is really [d͡ʒ] more often than not, but simpler to write).

- Coda /d~ʔ/ is hard to describe, since it's usually /ʔ/, but is believed to have come from /d/, which exists in some environments. Linguists tend to use both phonemes depending on the context, as does the romanization, while others use an archiphonemic /D/. Others still propose using /t/ given it also becomes a click utterance-finally.

- Conversely, coda [n] is commonly analyzed as simply /n/, even thought allophonically it can appear as [m].

- /o/ frequently is less voiced or disappears between /z/ and before /z/ or /ʒ/, becoming something similar to [s͡s͜ʷs] and [ʒ͡ʒʷ͜ʒ] respectively.

- - A similar process happens between two /f/s, although in this case the realization is more likely [fɵ̥f].

- Voicing is non-contrastive, although /m/, /n/, /b/ /d/ and intervocalic sounds tend to be voiced, while other phonemes are most likely slack voice, with utterance-final sounds generally being fully voiceless, being more accurately transcribed as /v̥ z̥ ʒ̊ g̊ ɦ̥ ᶢ̥ǀ/.

Below is a table of some of the more common realizations of morphological syllable clusters, although some sounds and especially voicing are fairly loose.

Coda + Onset C + /m/ C + /n/ C + /ǀ/ C + /b/ C + /d/ C + /ʒ/ C + /g/ C + /f/ C + /z/ C + /h/ C + /ʔ/ (C +) Vowel Word-Final C Utterance-Final C
Word-Initial O m n ᶢǀ~ᵏǀ b l t͡ʃ~d͡ʒ g~k f z~s h~ɦ ʔ ∅ N/A N/A
Vowel (+ O) m n ᶢǀ~ᵏǀ b l~ɾ ʒ g~k f z~s ɦ ʔ see: vowels ∅ ∅~h~ʔ
n + O nm n ᵑǀ nb~mb nd, nɺ nd͡ʒ ŋg~nç mv~ŋf nz~nd͡z nɦ nʔ n n n
f + O fm fn fᵏǀ~ᵑǀ fb~fp fd~ft, fl fd͡ʒ fg~fk fʷf fs~fz fɦ~vh fʔ f~ɸ f ɸ~ů
z + O zm zn zᶢǀ~zᵑǀ zb zd, zl zd͡ʒ zg~sk zf~sf zʷz~sʷs zh~sɦ zʔ~sʔ z~s z~s s
c + O d͡ʒm~t͡ʃm ʃn~d͡ʒ ʒᶢǀ~ʒᵑǀ d͡ʒb~ʒb (d͡)ʒd, ʃɺ ʒd͡ʒ~ʃt͡ʃ ʒg~t͡ʃk ʒf~t͡ʃf ʒʷʒ~ʃʷʃ t͡ʃh~d͡ʒɦ t͡ʃʔ~ʒʔ t͡ʃ~d͡ʒ d͡ʒ t͡ʃ~ʃ
g + O km~ɣm kn~ɣn ᵏǀˀ~ǀ͡ɠ gb kt~gd~ɠ͡| gʒ~ɣʒ ʔɣ~kx gf~xf ɣz~d͡z gh~kh~x ɣʔ~çʔ ʁ~ɣ~ç ɣ~x x
d/' + O ʔm ʔn ᵏǀˀ~ǀ͡ɠ ʔb~ɓ ʔd~ɗ ʔʒ~ʔt͡ʃ ʔg~ɠ df~ʔf ʔz~t͡s dh~ʔh dʔ d~ɾ ɾ~ʔ ǀˀ

This phonetically creates a distinct [ᵑǀ], [ǀˀ], [d͡ʒ], [ɣ], [sʷs], [ʃʷʃ], and [fʷf~fɵ̥f], and non-distinct [ŋ~ɲ], [ɓ], [ɗ], [ɠ], [ǀ͡ɠ], [ɸ] and [t͡s], although none of these are considered phonemic.

Vowels

Arborese features four vowels: /a/ Aa, /ɛ/ Ee, /ɨ/ Ii, and /ɔ/ Oo. Each of these may combine into a different diphthong or lengthened monophthongs, as shown in the below table.

Close Front Open Front Open Back Close Back
Short /ɪ/ [ɨ] i /ɛ/ e /ɐ/ a /ɔ/ o
V + ɪ [i:~ɨː] ii [eː~ej] ei [ɘɪ̆~ɔɪ̆] ai [wɛ~ɰ̃ɪ] oi
V + ɛ [je] ie [ɘː] ee [aɛ̆] ae [wɐ~ɰ̃a] oe
V + ɐ [ja] ia [ɛă] ea [a:~ɜ:] aa [oɑ̆] oa
V + ɔ [u] [ʏʊ̆] io [ɛʊ̆] eo [aɔ̆] ao [ɔ:~ɑː] oo

In addition, some argue that these can further combine into triphthongs or glides with lengthened monophthongs, although much of the time (especially in cases where the second and third vowel would be the same, or "opposite" [a/i, e/o]) there is distinctly a vowel hiatus between vowels to help differentiate them from triphthongs. Furthermore, two monophthongs across word boundaries will have a true vowel hiatus and not become a diphthong.

Romanization

Arborese does not feature its own alphabet, and the Latin script has been adopted to cover it, although in day-to-day use things are rarely written down in Arborese and linguists tend to use the IPA.

Letter Aa Pb Cc Ee Ff Gg Hh Ii Lld Mm Nn Oo Tt Zz ' -
Ipa /a/ /b/ /ʒ/ /ɛ/ /f/ /g/ /ɦ/ /ɨ/ /d/ /m/ /n/ /ɔ/ /ǀ/ /z/ /ʔ/ Null Onset after Codas
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